Designed Landscape Elements
Designed landscape elements—hardscapes and softscapes—promote health in a variety of ways, such as improved accessibility reducing physical barriers, and improved indoor air quality through plant absorption, as well as elements that provide sense of place and/or sensory stimulation, important for elder and mental health populations (Fleming, 2021). Other designed landscape features include rooftop gardens, indoor greenspace, window farms, workplace greenery, with many of these based on principles of universal design & accessibility. Articles on the role designed landscapes played in access to the outdoors during COVID-19 began being published in 2020 (Padial-Ruz et al., 2021; Iqbal, 2021; Shoari et al., 2020).
Related topics have been included in Landscapes for Health subset enabling gardens & adaptive gardening.
Related topics have been included in Landscapes for Health subset enabling gardens & adaptive gardening.
> Key Organizations
> Books, journals & E-publications on designed landscape elements
Americans with Disabilities Act
Bell, S. (2019). Elements of Visual Design in the Landscape. Routledge.
Carman, J. (2021). Design for Generations.
Dietzel, K. (2016). Correlating Patterns in the Urban Landscape: Biophilia and Landscape Configuration. Michigan State University.
Hutchinson, J. (2022). Implementing Landscape Design Principles to Improve Green Spaces and Promote Ecotherapy on a College Campus. Univ. of Maine.
Rothert, G. (1994). The Enabling Garden: Creating Barrier-Free Gardens. Taylor Trade Publishing.
Tai, L., Haque, M.T., McLellan, G.K. & Knight, E.J. (2006). Designing Outdoor Environments for Children: Landscaping Schoolyards, Gardens, and Playgrounds. McGraw Hill.
Bell, S. (2019). Elements of Visual Design in the Landscape. Routledge.
Carman, J. (2021). Design for Generations.
Dietzel, K. (2016). Correlating Patterns in the Urban Landscape: Biophilia and Landscape Configuration. Michigan State University.
Hutchinson, J. (2022). Implementing Landscape Design Principles to Improve Green Spaces and Promote Ecotherapy on a College Campus. Univ. of Maine.
Rothert, G. (1994). The Enabling Garden: Creating Barrier-Free Gardens. Taylor Trade Publishing.
Tai, L., Haque, M.T., McLellan, G.K. & Knight, E.J. (2006). Designing Outdoor Environments for Children: Landscaping Schoolyards, Gardens, and Playgrounds. McGraw Hill.
> RESEARCH & ARTICLES ON designed landscape elements
American Society of Landscape Architects. (2021). Universal design.
American Society of Landscape Architects. (2021). Universal design: Gardens.
Bravo, M. (2015). A guide for making community gardens accessible for all members. Grassroots Gardens of Buffalo.
Brilli, F., Fares, S., Ghirardo, A., de Visser, P., Calatayud, A., Annesi-Maesano, I., Sebastinai, F., Alivernini, A., Varriale, V. & Menghini, F. (2018). Plants for sustainable improvement of indoor air quality. Trends in Plant Science, 23(6), 507-512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2018.03.004
Charras, K., Laulier, V., Varcin, A. & Aquino, J.P. (2017). Designing gardens for people with dementia: Literature review and evidence-based design conceptual frame. Geriatr Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil., 15(4), 417-424. doi: 10.1684/pnv.2017.0703
Cummings, B.E. & Waring, M.S. (2020). Potted plants do not improve indoor air quality: A review and analysis of reported VOC removal efficiencies. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol., 30, 253–261. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-019-0175-9
Diehl, R.M. (2019). Perspective: Psychological accessibility—A perspective on therapeutic garden design. In R. Haller & Capra (Eds.), The Profession and Practice of Horticultural Therapy. CRC Press.
Dijkstra, K., Pieterse, M.E. & Pruyn, A. (2008). Stress-reducing effects of indoor plants in the built healthcare environment: The mediating role of perceived attractiveness. Preventative Medicine, 47(3), 279-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.01.013
Dillon, I. & Green, J. (2021). Universal design. American Society of Landscape Architects.
Fleming, L. (2021). Horticulture for health framework. ISHS Acta Horticulturae 1330: XV International People Plant Symposium and II International Symposium on Horticultural Therapies: The Role of Horticulture in Human Well-being and Social Development. (Kansas City, MO (USA).
Goto, S., Gianfagia, T.J., Munafo, J.P., Fujii, E., Shen, X., Sun, M., Shi, B.E., Liu, C., Hamano, H. & Herrup, K. (2017). The power of traditional design techniques: The effects of viewing a Japanese garden on Individuals with cognitive impairment. HERD, 10(4), 74-86. doi: 10.1177/1937586716680064
Iqbal, S.A. (2021). COVID-19 and the need for more accessible and designed hospital outdoor spaces in developing countries. HERD, 14(2), 368-372. doi: 10.1177/193758672199376
Lacanna, G., Wagenaar, C., Avernaetem, T. & Swamim, V. (2018). Evaluating the psychosocial impact of indoor public spaces in complex healthcare settings. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 12(3), 11-30. https://doi.org/10.1177/1937586718812439
Li, F., Fisher, K.J. & Harmer, P. (2005). Improving physical function and blood pressure in older adults through cobblestone mat walking: A randomized trial. J Am Geriatr Soc., 53(8), 1305-12. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.5340
Liu, C., Herrup, K., Goto, S. & Shi, B.E. (2020). Viewing garden scenes: Interaction between gaze behavior and physiological responses. J Eye Mov Res., 13(1), 10.16910/jemr.13.1.6. doi: 10.16910/jemr.13.1.6
Lottrup, L., Grahn, P. & Stigsdotter, U.K. (2013). Workplace greenery and perceived level of stress: Benefits of access to a green outdoor environment at the workplace. Landscape and Urban Planning, 110, 5–11. doi: 10.1016/j.landurbanplant.2012.09.002
Martin, K., Nanu, L., Kwon, W.S. & Martin, D. (2021). Small garden, big impact: Emotional and behavioral responses of visitors to a rooftop atrium in a major hospital. HERD, 14(3), 274-287. doi: 10.1177/1937586721992799
Morgan, S.C. (2019). Considerations and adaptations to safely accommodate program participants. In R. Haller, K. Kennedy & C. Capra (Eds.), The Profession and Practice of Horticultural Therapy. CRC Press.
Murray, B.R., Martin, L.J., Brown, C., Krix, D.W. & Phillips, M.L. (2018). Selecting low-flammability plants as green firebreaks within sustainable urban garden design. Fire, 1(1), 15.
Ouf, T.A., Makram, A. & Abdel Razek, S.A. (2021). Design indicators based on nature and social interactions to enhance wellness for patients in healthcare facilities. In Trapani, Mohareb (Eds.), Advanced Studies in Efficient Environmental Design and City Planning, 449-461. Springer, Cham.
Padial-Ruz, R., Puga-González, M.E., Céspedes-Jiménez, Á. & Cabello-Manrique D. (2021). Determining factors in the use of urban parks that influence the practice of physical activity in children: A systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health., 18(7), 3648. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18073648
Peschardt, K.K., Stigsdotter, U.K. & Schipperrijn, J. (2016). Identifying features of pocket parks that may be related to health promoting use. Landscape Research, 41(1), 79-94.
Ren, J. & Tang M.F. (2020). Study on the cooling effect of window gardens. E3S Web Conference 172. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202017224009
Rivasseau-Jonveaux, T., Pop, A., Fescharek, R., Chuzeville, S.B., Jacob, C., Demarche, L. & Malerba, G. (2012). Les jardins thérapeutiques : Recommandations et critères de conception [Healing gardens: Recommendations and criteria for design]. Geriatr Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil., 10(3), 245-53. doi: 10.1684/pnv.2012.0360
Saeedi, I. & Dabbagh, E. (2021). Modeling the relationships between hardscape color and user satisfaction in urban parks. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23(4), 6535-6552.
Seçkin, N.P. (2018). Environmental control in architecture by landscape design. A/Z ITU J. Fac. Archit., 15, 197-211.
Sherk, J.T., Fu, W. & Neal, J.C. (2020). Site conditions, maintenance costs, and plant performance of 10 extensive green roofs in the research triangle area of Central North Carolina. Hort Technology, 30(6). https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH04565-20
Shoari, N., Ezzati, M., Baumgartner, J., Malacarne, D. & Fecht, D. (2020). Accessibility and allocation of public parks and gardens in England and Wales: A COVID-19 social distancing perspective. PloS one, 15(10), e0241102.
Triguero-Mas, M., Anguelovski, I., Cirac-Claveras, J., Connolly, J., Vazquez, A., Urgell-Plaza, F., Cardona-Giralt, N., Sanyé-Mengual, E., Alonso, J. & Cole, H. (202o). Quality of life benefits of urban rooftop gardening for people with intellectual disabilities or mental health disorders. Prev Chronic Dis., 17, E126. doi: 10.5888/pcd17.200087
Ulrich, R.S., Lennart Bogren, L., Stuart K. Gardiner, S.K. & Lundin, S. (2018). Psychiatric ward design can reduce aggressive behavior. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 57, 53-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.05.002
Ulrich, R.S., Cordoza, M., Gardiner, S.K., Manulik, B.J., Fitzpatrick, P.S., Hazen, T.M. & Perkins, R.S. (2019). ICU patient family stress recovery during breaks in a hospital garden and indoor environments. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 13(2), 83-102. https://doi.org/10.1177/1937586719867157
Veitch, J., Salmon, J., Crawford, D., Abbott, G., Giles-Corti, B., Carver, A. & Timperio, A. (2018). The REVAMP natural experiment study: The impact of a play-scape installation on park visitation and park-based physical activity. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act., 15(1), 10. doi: 10.1186/s12966-017-0625-5
Wang, R., Jiang, W. & Lu, T. (2021). Landscape characteristics of university campus in relation to aesthetic quality and recreational preference. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 66, 127389.
Zayed, R.A., El-Gohary, G. & Abdelrehim, S.M. (2022). Implications for new cities’ landscape design using place-making: A comparative analysis study. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1056(1), 012045. IOP Publishing.
American Society of Landscape Architects. (2021). Universal design: Gardens.
Bravo, M. (2015). A guide for making community gardens accessible for all members. Grassroots Gardens of Buffalo.
Brilli, F., Fares, S., Ghirardo, A., de Visser, P., Calatayud, A., Annesi-Maesano, I., Sebastinai, F., Alivernini, A., Varriale, V. & Menghini, F. (2018). Plants for sustainable improvement of indoor air quality. Trends in Plant Science, 23(6), 507-512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2018.03.004
Charras, K., Laulier, V., Varcin, A. & Aquino, J.P. (2017). Designing gardens for people with dementia: Literature review and evidence-based design conceptual frame. Geriatr Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil., 15(4), 417-424. doi: 10.1684/pnv.2017.0703
Cummings, B.E. & Waring, M.S. (2020). Potted plants do not improve indoor air quality: A review and analysis of reported VOC removal efficiencies. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol., 30, 253–261. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-019-0175-9
Diehl, R.M. (2019). Perspective: Psychological accessibility—A perspective on therapeutic garden design. In R. Haller & Capra (Eds.), The Profession and Practice of Horticultural Therapy. CRC Press.
Dijkstra, K., Pieterse, M.E. & Pruyn, A. (2008). Stress-reducing effects of indoor plants in the built healthcare environment: The mediating role of perceived attractiveness. Preventative Medicine, 47(3), 279-83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2008.01.013
Dillon, I. & Green, J. (2021). Universal design. American Society of Landscape Architects.
Fleming, L. (2021). Horticulture for health framework. ISHS Acta Horticulturae 1330: XV International People Plant Symposium and II International Symposium on Horticultural Therapies: The Role of Horticulture in Human Well-being and Social Development. (Kansas City, MO (USA).
Goto, S., Gianfagia, T.J., Munafo, J.P., Fujii, E., Shen, X., Sun, M., Shi, B.E., Liu, C., Hamano, H. & Herrup, K. (2017). The power of traditional design techniques: The effects of viewing a Japanese garden on Individuals with cognitive impairment. HERD, 10(4), 74-86. doi: 10.1177/1937586716680064
Iqbal, S.A. (2021). COVID-19 and the need for more accessible and designed hospital outdoor spaces in developing countries. HERD, 14(2), 368-372. doi: 10.1177/193758672199376
Lacanna, G., Wagenaar, C., Avernaetem, T. & Swamim, V. (2018). Evaluating the psychosocial impact of indoor public spaces in complex healthcare settings. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 12(3), 11-30. https://doi.org/10.1177/1937586718812439
Li, F., Fisher, K.J. & Harmer, P. (2005). Improving physical function and blood pressure in older adults through cobblestone mat walking: A randomized trial. J Am Geriatr Soc., 53(8), 1305-12. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.5340
Liu, C., Herrup, K., Goto, S. & Shi, B.E. (2020). Viewing garden scenes: Interaction between gaze behavior and physiological responses. J Eye Mov Res., 13(1), 10.16910/jemr.13.1.6. doi: 10.16910/jemr.13.1.6
Lottrup, L., Grahn, P. & Stigsdotter, U.K. (2013). Workplace greenery and perceived level of stress: Benefits of access to a green outdoor environment at the workplace. Landscape and Urban Planning, 110, 5–11. doi: 10.1016/j.landurbanplant.2012.09.002
Martin, K., Nanu, L., Kwon, W.S. & Martin, D. (2021). Small garden, big impact: Emotional and behavioral responses of visitors to a rooftop atrium in a major hospital. HERD, 14(3), 274-287. doi: 10.1177/1937586721992799
Morgan, S.C. (2019). Considerations and adaptations to safely accommodate program participants. In R. Haller, K. Kennedy & C. Capra (Eds.), The Profession and Practice of Horticultural Therapy. CRC Press.
Murray, B.R., Martin, L.J., Brown, C., Krix, D.W. & Phillips, M.L. (2018). Selecting low-flammability plants as green firebreaks within sustainable urban garden design. Fire, 1(1), 15.
Ouf, T.A., Makram, A. & Abdel Razek, S.A. (2021). Design indicators based on nature and social interactions to enhance wellness for patients in healthcare facilities. In Trapani, Mohareb (Eds.), Advanced Studies in Efficient Environmental Design and City Planning, 449-461. Springer, Cham.
Padial-Ruz, R., Puga-González, M.E., Céspedes-Jiménez, Á. & Cabello-Manrique D. (2021). Determining factors in the use of urban parks that influence the practice of physical activity in children: A systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health., 18(7), 3648. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18073648
Peschardt, K.K., Stigsdotter, U.K. & Schipperrijn, J. (2016). Identifying features of pocket parks that may be related to health promoting use. Landscape Research, 41(1), 79-94.
Ren, J. & Tang M.F. (2020). Study on the cooling effect of window gardens. E3S Web Conference 172. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202017224009
Rivasseau-Jonveaux, T., Pop, A., Fescharek, R., Chuzeville, S.B., Jacob, C., Demarche, L. & Malerba, G. (2012). Les jardins thérapeutiques : Recommandations et critères de conception [Healing gardens: Recommendations and criteria for design]. Geriatr Psychol Neuropsychiatr Vieil., 10(3), 245-53. doi: 10.1684/pnv.2012.0360
Saeedi, I. & Dabbagh, E. (2021). Modeling the relationships between hardscape color and user satisfaction in urban parks. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23(4), 6535-6552.
Seçkin, N.P. (2018). Environmental control in architecture by landscape design. A/Z ITU J. Fac. Archit., 15, 197-211.
Sherk, J.T., Fu, W. & Neal, J.C. (2020). Site conditions, maintenance costs, and plant performance of 10 extensive green roofs in the research triangle area of Central North Carolina. Hort Technology, 30(6). https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTTECH04565-20
Shoari, N., Ezzati, M., Baumgartner, J., Malacarne, D. & Fecht, D. (2020). Accessibility and allocation of public parks and gardens in England and Wales: A COVID-19 social distancing perspective. PloS one, 15(10), e0241102.
Triguero-Mas, M., Anguelovski, I., Cirac-Claveras, J., Connolly, J., Vazquez, A., Urgell-Plaza, F., Cardona-Giralt, N., Sanyé-Mengual, E., Alonso, J. & Cole, H. (202o). Quality of life benefits of urban rooftop gardening for people with intellectual disabilities or mental health disorders. Prev Chronic Dis., 17, E126. doi: 10.5888/pcd17.200087
Ulrich, R.S., Lennart Bogren, L., Stuart K. Gardiner, S.K. & Lundin, S. (2018). Psychiatric ward design can reduce aggressive behavior. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 57, 53-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2018.05.002
Ulrich, R.S., Cordoza, M., Gardiner, S.K., Manulik, B.J., Fitzpatrick, P.S., Hazen, T.M. & Perkins, R.S. (2019). ICU patient family stress recovery during breaks in a hospital garden and indoor environments. HERD: Health Environments Research & Design Journal, 13(2), 83-102. https://doi.org/10.1177/1937586719867157
Veitch, J., Salmon, J., Crawford, D., Abbott, G., Giles-Corti, B., Carver, A. & Timperio, A. (2018). The REVAMP natural experiment study: The impact of a play-scape installation on park visitation and park-based physical activity. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act., 15(1), 10. doi: 10.1186/s12966-017-0625-5
Wang, R., Jiang, W. & Lu, T. (2021). Landscape characteristics of university campus in relation to aesthetic quality and recreational preference. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 66, 127389.
Zayed, R.A., El-Gohary, G. & Abdelrehim, S.M. (2022). Implications for new cities’ landscape design using place-making: A comparative analysis study. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1056(1), 012045. IOP Publishing.
> Examples of DESIGNED LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS
Baltimore Washington Medical Center, Glen Burnie, MD utilizes the natural slope of the site to make the site feel cozy and sheltered.
Botanica Garden in Wichita, Kansas is planning a barefoot sensory garden according to its website, in addition to its Sally Stone Sensory Garden, garden on the rocks, & woodland walk, incorporating several topographical features into the public garden.
Geller Terrace at Seidman Cancer Center, Cleveland Ohio, is designed by Virginia Burt and constructed as an inaccessible green roof to create a Zen-inspired space for visually strolling through textural contrasts, geometric shapes, sunlight & shadow patterns.
Greenest Block, Brooklyn, NY, window box planting contests and other initiatives to restore the landscape and Brooklyn residents’ spirits after Hurricane Sandy; initiatives by the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. See also Restorative Gardening on Brooklyn's Coast.
Matthaei Botanical Gardens & Nichols Arboretum specifically designed display gardens, trails and public buildings to be accessible, taking into account inclines, slopes and clearance.
San Francisco Botanical Garden in Golden Gate Park uses wayfinding signage that marks the accessible route with ISA symbols.
Schwab Rehabilitation Hospital rooftop garden in Chicago, Illinois, is designed as an accessible greenspace on the roof of a hospital with children’s play area, space for horticultural therapy and complementary therapies to take place outdoors, meadow plantings, and water elements.
The Atrium Courtyard Garden at Navesink Harbor is a rooftop garden, part of a residential building.
The Healing Garden at Kimball Medical Center rooftop garden is accessible to hospital patients, staff, & visitors; location adjacent to hospital entrance with views from patient rooms.
Botanica Garden in Wichita, Kansas is planning a barefoot sensory garden according to its website, in addition to its Sally Stone Sensory Garden, garden on the rocks, & woodland walk, incorporating several topographical features into the public garden.
Geller Terrace at Seidman Cancer Center, Cleveland Ohio, is designed by Virginia Burt and constructed as an inaccessible green roof to create a Zen-inspired space for visually strolling through textural contrasts, geometric shapes, sunlight & shadow patterns.
Greenest Block, Brooklyn, NY, window box planting contests and other initiatives to restore the landscape and Brooklyn residents’ spirits after Hurricane Sandy; initiatives by the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. See also Restorative Gardening on Brooklyn's Coast.
Matthaei Botanical Gardens & Nichols Arboretum specifically designed display gardens, trails and public buildings to be accessible, taking into account inclines, slopes and clearance.
San Francisco Botanical Garden in Golden Gate Park uses wayfinding signage that marks the accessible route with ISA symbols.
Schwab Rehabilitation Hospital rooftop garden in Chicago, Illinois, is designed as an accessible greenspace on the roof of a hospital with children’s play area, space for horticultural therapy and complementary therapies to take place outdoors, meadow plantings, and water elements.
The Atrium Courtyard Garden at Navesink Harbor is a rooftop garden, part of a residential building.
The Healing Garden at Kimball Medical Center rooftop garden is accessible to hospital patients, staff, & visitors; location adjacent to hospital entrance with views from patient rooms.
> Videos, webinars & websites on DESIGNED LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS
Accessible Gardens information from Univ. of Florida provides ideas for paths, beds, & adaptive methods & tools.
Insights & Solutions resources online with trends, tools & resources for improving healthcare environments, some of which focus on indoor & outdoor gardens in healthcare settings.
Nature Sacred.org website and publication Design and Fund Accessible Gardens provide examples of gardens using universal design principles, suggesting ideas for garden construction & tool selection.
The IDEA Center for Public Gardens launched by the American Public Garden Association, with support from the Denver Botanic Gardens and the Institute for Museum and Library Services has an initiative supporting, promoting and teaching inclusion, diversity, equity and accessibility (IDEA) on its website.
The Universal Garden website from Americans with Disabilities Act National Network introduces important concepts for universal gardens using universal design principles including examples.
The Windowfarms Project video demonstrates why & how to build an indoor garden that can grow food.
Universal Garden in Boise Idaho demonstrates universal design principles in the garden.
Insights & Solutions resources online with trends, tools & resources for improving healthcare environments, some of which focus on indoor & outdoor gardens in healthcare settings.
Nature Sacred.org website and publication Design and Fund Accessible Gardens provide examples of gardens using universal design principles, suggesting ideas for garden construction & tool selection.
The IDEA Center for Public Gardens launched by the American Public Garden Association, with support from the Denver Botanic Gardens and the Institute for Museum and Library Services has an initiative supporting, promoting and teaching inclusion, diversity, equity and accessibility (IDEA) on its website.
The Universal Garden website from Americans with Disabilities Act National Network introduces important concepts for universal gardens using universal design principles including examples.
The Windowfarms Project video demonstrates why & how to build an indoor garden that can grow food.
Universal Garden in Boise Idaho demonstrates universal design principles in the garden.
> Related organizations
Written & compiled by Lesley Fleming, Leah Diehl, Susan Morgan Nov 2021; revised in Dec 2022 by Lesley Fleming, Bree Stark